Even since the end of the dynastic period (1911) and the establishment of the communist People’s Republic (1949), which was often violently hostile to religion, the influence of both Daoism and Confucianism in Chinese culture remains strong. Two prominent Chinese philosophers, Fung (1948) and Wei (2009), emphasised the important social and political role that family plays in China, given the agricultural nature of the country and Confucian culture. Viewed from another perspective, the miracle of China has been its astonishing unity. Whatever the validity of Kahn’s thesis may be, his notion of the Confucian economic ethic began spreading, eventually reaching the very civilizations to which it was meant to apply. Despite the different distinctive features in each of the philosophies, the two complemented each other and it was believed that for one to be considered complete: he/she had to measure up to the two philosophies. The position of women has been regarded as strong throughout Southeast Asia; in particular in matrilineal societies like the Minangkabau (Kahn 1993). Industrialization and the employment of female factory workers, especially in the garment and electronics industry has led to migration and chances for educational attainment but also to exploitation and harassment of women (Heyzer 1985, Sen and Stivens 1998). Along with the demand for consumer goods, the demand for knowledge also increased. In its most profound interpretation, the Cosmic Dao, or the Way of the Cosmos, it is the immanent and transcendent “source” of the universe (Daodejing), spontaneously and incessantly generating the “ten thousand things” (a metaphor for the world) and giving rise, in its constant fluctuation, to the complementary forces of yinyang, which make up all aspects and phenomena of life. However, unlike Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism have not become world religions. If the moral worth of an act would be determined by something external, then the will would not be free and we would act out of inclination, desire, passion, or moral weakness. The family apparatus has been adopted naturally in both social-cultural and political-economic systems and facilitated the synchronising of these two systems. Lin Biao, it was said, ‘used the doctrines of Confucius and Mencius as a reactionary ideological weapon in his plot to usurp Party leadership, seize state power and restore capitalism in China’ (Publisher’s Note, 1974). Most importantly, how do we decide whether a virtue is in fact a moral excellence? Most ASEAN leaders and governments have developed visions of the future that are targeting a knowledge society as a way to achieve parity with the Western world. Brigitte Berger's cultural approach to entrepreneurship argues that economic growth develops from the ‘bottom up,’ not from ‘top down’: ordinary individuals, competing with one another for achieving a variety of goals (including economic profit and self-advancement), create in their everyday activities, practices, habits, and ideas the basis for other distinctly modern institutions to emerge that may mediate between them and distant, large-scale structures of society. The foregoing discussions have sought to show that both Confucianism and Daoism possess a strong ethical dimension. According to the census in 2011, 91.51% of the population in China is Han ethnic. Confucius based his system of ethics on six virtues: xi, zhi, li, yi, wen, and ren. Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn Period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of Zhou values. Therefore, the Western-termed rational and logical economic system does not apply to China. The book should have a wide readership among professional scholars and graduate students in Chinese philosophy, specifically Confucian ethics, Daoist ethics, and comparative ethics. In a well-known debate, Gerschenkron (1962) refutes Landes and Sawyer's thesis by arguing that the error of giving too much importance to social attitudes lies in assuming the existence of a homogeneous and generalized value system in society. As Steve Coutinho worries, “What is the Daoist’s allegiance to their own human existence?” (Coutinho, 2004: 165). According to Kant this principle of the universability of moral law can be expressed in three other formulas: act in such a way that you treat the humanity of others as well as your own humanity, always as an end and never as a means; act in such a away that you always assume every ‘rational being’ to be a will that ‘legislates universal law,’ and act in such a way that you take yourself, and all other rational beings, to be members of a ‘kingdom of ends.’ The categorical imperative in its three versions essentially argues that morality is the expression of the moral autonomy of rational beings that legislate upon themselves laws that command their utmost respect. The concept of strategic group can be used to analyze this new situation more adequately. Three Different Schools of Thought This chapter introduces the three different schools of thought discussed in this paper, namely the Aristotelian School of Thought as presented in Aristotle’s works, particularly in the Politics and Nicomachean Ethics; Confucianism as presented in the Lun Yu and Daoism as presented in the Dao De Jing. Talking about the differences, Confucianism focuses on rituals while Taoism emphasizes the nature. Third, cultural explanations can be accused of having little predictive power since they are invoked only after a particular group has demonstrated its economic prowess; and of being ultimately tautological, since if a certain minority is successful, it must be because it originally had, or later acquired, the right values. Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is a system of philosophical and "ethical-sociopolitical teachings" sometimes described as a religion. It is in response to these doubts that Immanuel Kant developed his absolutist, deontological, and cognitivistic ethics. Whereas Soek regards, Business Networks and the Emergence of Guanxi Capitalism in China, Business Networks in East Asian Capitalisms, Due to the holistic feature from the Chinese Yin-Yang culture, there are no clear boundaries among the political, economic, and social apparatus in human life—as a whole, it is guided by a general principle which is, Frugalists, anti-consumers, and prosumers: Chinese philosophical perspectives on consumerism, The Changing Landscape of China’s Consumerism, . The knowledge on Southeast Asian societies is increasing fast (Halib and Huxley 1996). The anthropology of Southeast Asian food has to be concerned with syncretism and life-styling as much as religious symbolism. Capitalism thrives on consumerism, as its dynamism stands in a direct relationship with the intensity of demand and the ability to supply. This was not the first time Confucianism was discussed along with capitalism, nor was it to be the last. Slingerland also cites recent empirical studies to criticize this model. ... A Daoist-Confucian Proposals for Global Ethics.” Abstract. This discussion inspires further consideration of what a moral rationalist may be, and the extent to which Xunzi may, or may not, be a moral rationalist. We have mentioned at the introduction to this article on Chinese ethics that the ancient Confucians and Daoists did not develop a branch of studies called ethics. 14. In contrast, Aristotle drew a sharp distinction between the economic relationships of the family and the political relationships of the state (Schochet, 1975), while Confucius integrated the relationship of family and state. Unlike Confucianism, however, Daoism eventually developed into a self-conscious religion, with an organized doctrine, cultic practices, and institutional leadership. In both cases, the socialization entails acquiring certain social habits and living in accordance with communally sanctioned or proscribed mores and manners. A conventional but unlikely story has it that Laozi and Confucius (551–479 BCE), the founder of Confucianism, once met and that the former (older) philosopher was not impressed. True or False: Daoism is noted for its strict ethical codes; its detailed descriptions of what is good and bad in the universe. He states that the key contributing factor for the rapid growth in these countries is Confucian cultural values of ‘dedicated, motivated, responsible and educated individuals and enhanced sense of commitment, organizational identity, and loyalty to various institutions’ (Kahn, 1979: 128). Migrant communities, like the Overseas Chinese originating from Southern China, the South Indian Chettiar, or the Hadramaut Arabs, have been classified as trading minorities in view of their economic position in Southeast Asian societies. These morals, in other words, do not travel well. This is the philosophical root of doing business: following the ethics of the ‘rule of man’ rather than the ‘rule of law’ is common business practice for firms. Slingerland (2010), on the other hand, categorizes Xunzi’s moral psychology as a theory that presumes what he calls the “high reason model,” which significantly resembles the reason-based model in Soek’s account. When we act from duty, we act out of respect for the moral law. In other words, decision-making through complex social processes engenders an institutional environment constructed by guanxi. Daoist philosophy characteristically contrasts the Cosmic Dao in its naturalness, spontaneity, and eternal rhythmic fluctuation with the artificiality, constraint, and stasis of human society and culture. Also, the whole family of several generations needed to live together for economic reasons, from which the Chinese family system has developed. In this lecture we will study ethical ideas found in the Daodejing of Laozi, the Book of Zhuangzi, the Book of Liezi, and other Daoist sources.Please read the Bamboo Laozi, and as much of the Zhuangzi as you can.. Confucius said the central thread throughout his thinking, the one underlying idea that ties all his thinking together, is compassion, being humane to be a better human. Kant argues that we must suspend all appeal to history, folklore, and religion in order to reflect on what we take to be truly moral. Schumpeter inspired the historical research of the Harvard Center for Entrepreneurial History. The family and its values, reaching decisions through consensus rather the majority vote and a religiously grounded work ethic have been stressed in a debate on Asian values. A Confucian work ethic, a Confucian kind of family-based loyalty, a Confucian sense of duty, and a Confucian kind of thrift – all these were now celebrated as quasi-Protestant qualities that serve as excellent conditions for a successful and modernized capitalist society. He called these critics the ‘Anti-Growth Triads’. Another potential difficulty with Singapore is that its claim to being a ‘Confucian culture’ may be somewhat questionable. The Daoists on the other hand need not fear that they would descend into pedantry. Despite two dynasties (Yuan and Qing) being ruled by minorities (Mongolian and Manchu), the ruling class embraced Han culture completely and governed the country following mainly Confucian ethics. Whether or not justifiable, the Confucian philosophers were seen back then by the radical wing of the CCP as ‘capitalist-roaders’. Cultural norms, role expectations, and social sanctions can either favor or hinder innovation. Duty in fact aims at what Kant called ‘categorical imperatives,’ which in contrast to hypothetical imperatives, are what must be done. I thought it might be productive to extract some of my analysis here for discussion. By 400AD Buddhism absorbed many Confusican and Daoist traditions. 13. Another approach that is framed in the cultural paradigm is the social attitudes (or cultural legitimation) model, developed by the members of the Harvard Center for Entrepreneurial History, such as Landes (1951), Sawyer (1952), and Cochran (1949) and by sociologists such as Lipset (1967).Comparing the United States and Latin America, both Cochran and Lipset explain differences in economic development in terms of the degree of legitimation of entrepreneurship. Weber makes a clear distinction between economic policies and economic attitude, and while the Confucian scholar-officials presented many favourable policies, the Confucian culture did not, according to Weber, produce any comparable kind of economic attitude to the one engendered by Protestant Christianity. He engages in what he calls a transcendental investigation, that is, he seeks to uncover the conditions of possibility without which morality would not make any sense. Chapter Six- Daoism, Confucianism, & Shinto 11. I argue that Xunzi’s moral psychology cannot be captured by either of the two models Soek characterizes, but presents to us a third alternative: it gives us a good example of a hybrid model of these two. They both are regarded as a path of life. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Neo-Weberian research focuses on the degree to which the forces of rationalization responsible for dislodging individuals from their embeddedness in nature, religion, and tradition continue to shape economic growth and social modernization. This is not because Confucianism implemented policies that were downright inhibitive of commercial activities. Confucianism is mainly focused on the social virtue, ethics and its impact on the relationship between a man and his society, whereas Taoism focuses on the individual life in relationship with the ‘Tao’ or ‘the way of nature’. The volume also includes essays addressing the broader question of the value of comparative philosophy generally and of studying early Chinese ethics in particular. Indeed, Xunzi’s emphasis on ritual practices in the cultivation of xin and qing toward sagehood sheds light on a possible interplay between reason and emotion in ideal moral judgment/decision. The categorical imperative merely makes implicit that which we take to be indispensable and inalienable to morality; but it also offers us a North Star. Qi is “vital energy”, the difference between the living and the dead. Singapore has become the centre of the Chinese business community (Chan and Chiang 1994, Menkhoff and Gerke 2001). Is Daoist meta-ethics sufficient to keep them connected to the human? The major take-off of the Confucian capitalist thesis took place in Singapore in the 1980s and 1990s, after the Singapore government introduced Confucianism in the school curriculum in 1982. An epistemic culture of local Southeast Asianists is emerging, contributing to a further construction of Southeast Asia as a sociocultural unit. Southeast Asian cultures as systems of beliefs, values, symbols, and presentations are as diverse as the ethnic plurality of the local and migrant population. Confucius created a rational and humane ethical system, as opposed to a legal institution, to govern and stabilise the country by mobilising, rather than repressing people’s emotions. Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. According to Kant, and Socrates as well, we cannot judge something moral just because we deem it so, or have been told so. The book is written in a decade of severe economic problems in the West, including the oil crisis, trade deficits, and rising inflation, while the economies of Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea were able to overcome rising oil prices and the general economic crisis in the world, enjoying far higher growth rates than the United States and Western European countries. In general, ethics driven by guanxi rather than law determines the way of doing business. The pursuit of virtue, in other words, does not produced morality, but the pursuit of morality leads us to virtue. We will thus begin our discussion with the ancient Taoist elements of Confucianism. Which of the following explains what the Dao actually represents? The first adheres to the rise of industrial producer capitalism and, therefore, to Weber’s thesis, while the second has to do with the contemporary type of consumer capitalism that has increasingly characterized Western societies since the mid-twentieth century. Generally speaking, whereas Daoism embraces nature and what is natural and spontaneous in human experience, even to the point of dismissing much of China’s advanced culture, learning, and morality, Confucianism regards human social institutions—including the family, the school, the community, and the state—as essential to human flourishing and moral excellence, because they are the only realm in which those achievements, as Confucius conceived them, are possible. Kane, Virginia M., Taoism and Contemporary Environmental Ethics, Master of Arts (Philosophy), December 2001, 99 pp., references, 63 titles. As Russell (1961, p. 41) stated: ‘To understand an age or a nation, we must understand its philosophy’. In order to do this Kant investigates the a priori assumptions of all moral action. Max Weber, in his influential study of religion and capitalism, had argued that Confucianism was unlikely to contribute to the development of the kind of systematic rationalized capitalism that was emerging in Europe and North America in his time (Weber, 1988). Both traditions have permeated Chinese culture for some 2,500 years. Admittedly, this issue opens a can of worms, as the same question could most certainly be asked about the Chinese population at large. The Confucian system of ethics is the fundamental motivation of all pursuits in life in society and has been embedded in civilisation for two millennia. The most important trait of character in this Daoist virtue ethics is respect for different ways of life—a virtue not discussed in any familiar versions of virtue ethics in the West and yet most valuable to contemporary life in a global and pluralistic society. Journalists, writers and scholars alike all highlight the necessity of virtues in business, though of course with different emphases. Nor can we derive morality from examples, role models, or paragons of morality, for in labeling them as such, we already operate with an inchoate notion of the moral. Commercial activities were quite ‘loose’, adapted to the situation each time, and did not lead to rationalized bureaucracy, bookkeeping, law, and regulations. Confucius provided few specific moral principles. Notwithstanding its seeming rigor and absolutism, Kantianism is parsimonious and abstemious; it neither presuppose reference to specific cultural contexts and customs, nor does it offer a set of rules. In the core states Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, and Indonesia the number of students and teachers, and of secondary schools, colleges, and universities, has risen dramatically. What may be a virtue in one community may be a vice in another. At first blush, it may seem that Confucians and Daoists, being followers of the Way (Dao 道), would agree about an ethics of virtue as the way of life.Thinkers in these eastern traditions look to sages as exemplary models of virtuous actions, and as ideal rulers. Warner (2004) noted that China’s national identity is thus deep-rooted in its history and culture. It is, for instance, interesting that in the 1970s and into the mid-1980s, the Singapore leadership praised and encouraged ‘rugged individualism’ until it suddenly began endorsing its exact opposite, namely a Confucian kind of collectivism, duty, and self-sacrifice (Englehart, 2000). … We noted in our travels in these neo-Confucian societies they have begun to accept their ‘cultural superiority’ with great ease. Evidence for this cultural approach is found in various empirical researches, including: Martin's (1990) analysis of the role of Protestant sects in generating a dynamic process among segments of the urban poor in contemporary Latin American cities that fosters entrepreneurial activities; Redding's study of the relation between basic aspects of Chinese culture—such as Confucian ethic and family attitudes—and the entrepreneurial behavior among overseas Chinese (1990); Landa's thesis of the entrepreneurial success of ethnically homogeneous middlemen groups in Africa and in Southeast Asia (1991). tried to organize the writings and ideas that represented the major intellectual alternatives available The Cosmic Dao is “imperceptible” and “indiscernible,” in the sense of being indeterminate or not any particular thing; it is the void that latently contains all forms, entities, and forces of particular phenomena. Colonial Southeast Asian societies were ‘moulded on racial principles: belonging to the dominant white upper caste provided one with prestige and power largely independent of one's personal capabilities. According to Kant in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, there is only one categorical imperative, which he formulates in this way: “Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.” Moral acts are only those that can be universalized. The book is written in a decade of severe economic problems in the West, including the oil crisis, trade deficits, and rising inflation, while the economies of Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea were able to overcome rising oil prices and the general economic crisis in the world, enjoying far higher growth rates than the United States and Western European countries. The Dao de Jing is believed to be written by whom 12. 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